[66], Modern scholars find this an unlikely series of events, probably made up by the 12th-century Orthodox priests who authored the Chronicle as an explanation how the Vikings managed to conquer the lands along the Varangian route so easily, as well as to support the legitimacy of the Rurikid dynasty. Questions had been asked through member countries, including Norway, as to the usefulness, effectiveness, and purpose of the military alliance as its withdrawal from Afghanistan saw the country, and . Russian victory Destruction of the Carolean army Decline of the Swedish Empire Turning point in the Great Northern War. [91] The Rus' and Slavs had earlier allied with the Khazars against Arab raids on the Caucasus, but they increasingly worked against them to secure control of the trade routes. Who defeated the Vikings? Neither Norway, Sweden nor Finland could hold a Russian invasion at the border. Some of the main regional centres that developed later were Novgorod, Chernigov, Halych, Kiev, Ryazan, Vladimir-upon-Klyazma, Volodimer-Volyn and Polotsk. Before 1015 there were five dioceses: Kiev, Chernihiv, Bilhorod, Volodymyr, Novgorod, and soon thereafter Yuriy-upon-Ros. [citation needed], By 1130, all descendants of Vseslav the Seer had been exiled to the Byzantine Empire by Mstislav the Great. The Rus' were said to have violently killed their victims. By the time of Yaroslav's reign (101954), education had struck roots and its benefits were apparent. // : . [44] By the early 9th century, bands of Scandinavian adventurers known as Varangians and later Rus' started plundering various (Slavic) villages in the region, later extracting tribute in exchange for protection against pillaging by other Varangians. [citation needed], In 941, Igor led another major Rus' attack on Constantinople, probably over trading rights again. [92], The Byzantine Empire was able to take advantage of the turmoil to expand its political influence and commercial relationships, first with the Khazars and later with the Rus' and other steppe groups. From the "Life of St. Feodosi" we know that a school existed in Kursk around the year of 1023. '", "By means of these marital ties, Kievan Rus' became well known throughout Europe. [citation needed], To the southwest, the Principality of Halych had developed trade relations with its Polish, Hungarian and Lithuanian neighbours and emerged as the local successor to Kievan Rus'. [citation needed], From the 11th to 13th centuries the principalities were divided into volosts, from its centre usually called a pryhorod (a lesser gorod or grad, "fortified settlement"). Upon their arrival home, they convinced Vladimir that the faith of the Byzantine Rite was the best choice of all, upon which Vladimir made a journey to Constantinople and arranged to marry Princess Anna, the sister of Byzantine emperor Basil II. Novgorod had a sewage system and wood pavement not often found in other cities at the time. Velychenko, Stephen "New wine old bottle. [81], The new Kievan state prospered due to its abundant supply of furs, beeswax, honey and slaves for export,[82] and because it controlled three main trade routes of Eastern Europe. A grandson married the only daughter of the last Anglo-Saxon king of England. [46] Conferences and publications questioning the Norse origins of the Rus' have been supported directly by state policy in some cases, and the resultant foundation myths have been included in some school textbooks in Russia. Accessed 12 January 2021. Norway has advised all of its citizens to leave Ukraine and . [84] Demand for luxury goods fostered production of expensive jewelry and religious wares, allowing their export, and an advanced credit and money-lending system may have also been in place. [4] This often unfruitful debate over origins has periodically devolved into competing nationalist narratives of dubious scholarly value being promoted directly by various government bodies, in a number of states. While the war in Ukraine rages on, NATO is conducting large military drills in Norway testing its troops' combat skills in cold terrain and Norway's management of troop reinforcements . The combined principality of Vladimir-Suzdal asserted itself as a major power in Kievan Rus' in the late 12th century. [44] Over time, these relationships of tribute for protection evolved into more permanent political structures: the Rus' lords became princes and the Slavic populace their subjects. In 1299, in the wake of the Mongol invasion, the metropolitan moved from Kiev to the city of Vladimir and Vladimir-Suzdal. The Rus became both very powerful and very rich. [170] Constantinople, then one of the largest cities in the world, had a population of about 400,000 around 1180. 1652. [citation needed], The exact date of creation of the Kiev Metropolis is uncertain, as well as its first church leader. Even though that really is a qualified claim, the people of the North have nevertheless lived for many years with a stable relationship to Russia. Kievan Rus: Formation & Major Events of the Early Years. [70], In 883, he conquered the Drevlians, imposing a fur tribute on them. Kiev was the main depot and transit point for trade between itself, Byzantium and the Black Sea region. [16] The modern nations of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine all claim Kievan Rus' as their cultural ancestor,[d] with Belarus and Russia deriving their names from it. [33] In English, the term was introduced in the early 20th century, when it was found in the 1913 English translation of Vasily Klyuchevsky's A History of Russia,[34] to distinguish the early polity from successor states, which were also named Rus'. Ambassador to Norway Marc Nathanson for comparing Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022 to Germany's invasion of Norway in 1940.. Nathanson made his comments on March 1 at the Kirkenes Conference, an international conference on cooperation in the Barents Region held annually in northern Norway. In the south, in the area around Kiev, were the Poliane, a group of Slavicized tribes with Iranian origins,[42] the Drevliane to the west of the Dnieper, and the Severiane to the east. Russian President Vladimir Putin visits the national guard headquarters in the Luhansk Region, Russian-controlled Ukraine, in this still image taken from handout video released on April 18, 2023. [126][failed verification], Although sometimes solely attributed to Vladimir/Volodymyr, the Christianization of Kievan Rus' was a long and complicated process that began before the state's formation. [159], In Kievan Rus' the major administrative division became the principality, or duchy (kniazivstvo), each one the seat of a kniaz (prince or duke). World News Reuters Updated: May 18, 2022 4:44 pm IST [82], The rapid expansion of the Rus' to the south led to conflict and volatile relationships with the Khazars and other neighbors on the Pontic steppe. [21] At the same time, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword (of the Northern Crusades) were conquering the Baltic region and threatening the Lands of Novgorod. 03/17/2022. from. They thus selected three brothers with their kinfolk, who took with them all the Rus' and migrated. Upon the transferring of the metropolitan seat in 1299, the Dormition Cathedral, Vladimir was chosen as the new cathedral. [citation needed], In the northeast, Slavs from the Kievan region colonized the territory that later would become the Grand Duchy of Moscow by subjugating and merging with the Finnic tribes already occupying the area. They explo. [130] The greatest resistance against Christianisation appears to have occurred in northern towns including Novgorod, Suzdal, and Belozersk. Norway is ready to go along with new economic sanctions against Putin, his government and many of the wealthy men who've been . .. [127] As early as the 1st century CE, Greeks in the Black Sea Colonies converted to Christianity, and the Primary Chronicle even records the legend of Andrew the Apostle's mission to these coastal settlements, as well as blessing the site of present-day Kyiv. [citation needed], The change in political structure led to the inevitable development of the peasant class or smerds. '[153], In 988, the Christian Church in Rus' territorially fell under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople after it was officially adopted as the state religion. The emperor arranged for a small group of retired ships to be outfitted with Greek fire throwers and sent them out to meet the Rus', luring them into surrounding the contingent before unleashing the Greek fire. .: , 1988. As a general measure, he made the parish priests "teach the people". Pilgrims of the Rus' had been making the journey from Kiev to Constantinople for many years, and Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the Emperor of the Byzantine Empire, believed that this gave them significant information about the arduous parts of the journey and where travelers were most at risk, as would be pertinent for an invasion. But at Constantinople, they were so astounded by the beauty of the cathedral of Hagia Sophia and the liturgical service held there that they made up their minds there and then about the faith they would like to follow. Learn how and when to remove this template message, trade route between the Khazars and the Germanic lands, trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, Lesser Poland Province, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Demographic history of Russia Kievan Rus, Mongol invasion and vassalage, Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, List of wars involving Ukraine Kyivan Rus' and the Kingdom of Ruthenia (800s1349), List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, "Ukraine History, section "Kyivan (Kievan) Rus", "When Viking Kings and Queens Ruled Medieval Russia", Historical map of Kievan Rus' from 980 to 1054, "Civilization in Eastern Europe Byzantium and Orthodox Europe". Cyprian, a candidate pushed by the Lithuanian rulers, became Metropolitan of Kiev in 1375 and metropolitan of Moscow in 1382; this way the church in the territory of former Kievan Rus' was reunited for some time. Envoys were sent between the Rus', the Byzantines, and the Bulgarians in 945, and a peace treaty was completed. [160], Kievan Rus', although sparsely populated compared to Western Europe,[161] was not only the largest contemporary European state in terms of area but also culturally advanced. [72][73] The attack was the first encounter between the Rus' and Byzantines and led the Patriarch to send missionaries north to engage and attempt to convert the Rus' and the Slavs. As climate change opens up the Arctic for transit and exploration, Russia has increasingly militarized the region. The Rus' were raiding and plundering into the Caspian Sea region from 864,[g] with the first large-scale expedition in 913, when they extensively raided Baku, Gilan, Mazandaran and penetrated into the Caucasus. His daughters became queens of Hungary, France and Norway; his sons married the daughters of a Polish king and Byzantine emperor, and a niece of the Pope; and his granddaughters were a German empress and (according to one theory) the queen of Scotland. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. About 180,000 Russians have so far been killed or wounded during the war in Ukraine, while the figure for the Ukrainians is 100,000 military casualties and 30,000 dead civilians, according to . 688 .: . The Norwegian campaign (8 April - 10 June 1940) involved the attempt by Allied forces to defend northern Norway coupled with the resistance of the Norwegian military to the country's invasion by Nazi Germany in World War II . "[79][f] Oleg set about consolidating his power over the surrounding region and the riverways north to Novgorod, imposing tribute on the East Slav tribes. Kiev was also dominant in internal trade between the Rus towns; it held a monopoly on glassware products (glass vessels, glazed pottery and window glass) up until the early- to mid-12th century until which it lost its monopoly to the other Rus towns. The Kiev Metropolitan sent his own delegation to the Council of Bari in 1098. [citation needed], In the 11th and the 12th centuries, the princes and their retinues, which were a mixture of Slavic and Scandinavian elites, dominated the society of Kievan Rus'. These trading routes became less important as the Byzantine Empire declined in power and Western Europe created new trade routes to Asia and the Near East. [27][28], When the Varangian princes arrived, the name Rus' was associated with them, and the territories they controlled were called Rus' land (russka zeml): initially the cities of Kyiv, Chernihiv, and Pereiaslav and their surroundings. A son of Vladimir the Great, he was prince of Novgorod at the time of his father's death in 1015. These treaties deal with the treatment of runaway Byzantine slaves and limitations on the amounts of certain commodities such as silk that could be bought from Byzantium. [citation needed] In 1370, the patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church in Constantinople granted the King of Poland a metropolitan for his Ruthenian subjects. [citation needed], It is not clearly documented when the title of the Grand Duke was first introduced, but the importance of the Kiev principality was recognized after the death of Sviatoslav I in 972 and the ensuing struggle between Vladimir/Volodymyr the Great and Yaropolk I. . Journal Auditorium, Kyiv, 2010. In 1136, Novgorod revolted against Kiev, and became independent. 1400)-language text, Articles containing Finnish-language text, Articles containing Russian-language text, Articles containing Ukrainian-language text, Articles containing Belarusian-language text, Articles with failed verification from January 2023, Articles with dead external links from January 2023, Articles with unsourced statements from April 2010, All articles with suspected copyright violations, Articles with suspected copyright violations from January 2023, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2013, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2013, Articles with unsourced statements from February 2023, Articles needing additional references from February 2017, Articles with unsourced statements from July 2022, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, 9th century 14th century (separatist territory, partial suzerainty under Kievan Rus'). [76][118], The Chronicle provides a mythic tale of Oleg's death. [131] According to the Primary Chronicle, Volodymyr was baptised in c. 987, and ordered the population of Kyiv to be baptised in August 988. International trade as well as skilled artisans flourished, while its farms produced enough to feed the urban population. On the initiative of Vladimir II Monomakh in 1097 the first federal council of Kievan Rus' took place near Chernigov in the city of Liubech with the main intention to find an understanding among the fighting sides. [105] The Pechenegs were thus secure to raid the lands of the Khazars from their base between the Volga and Don rivers, allowing them to expand to the west. The smerdy were initially given equality in the Kievian law code; they were theoretically equal to the prince; so they enjoyed as much freedom as can be expected of manual labourers. There also were dioceses in Zakarpattia and Tmutarakan. "[60] Liutprand of Cremona, who was twice an envoy to the Byzantine court (949 and 968), identifies the "Russi" with the Norse ("the Russi, whom we call Norsemen by another name")[61] but explains the name as a Greek term referring to their physical traits ("A certain people made up of a part of the Norse, whom the Greeks call [] the Russi on account of their physical features, we designate as Norsemen because of the location of their origin."). The outcome indicates increased military might by Byzantium since 911, suggesting a shift in the balance of power. Come to rule and reign over us". Rus Invasion of Scandinavia Date 821 AD Place Scandinavia Result Rus invasion failed Combatants Kingdom of Norway Kingdom of Kattegat Kievan Rus Commanders King Harald King Bjorn Queen Gunnhild Jarl Thorkell Erik Grand Prince Oleg Ivar Ganbaatar Strength Over 3,000 warriors at the Battle for Vestfold [85], Kiev was a central outpost along the Dnieper route and a hub with the eastwest overland trade route between the Khazars and the Germanic lands of Central Europe. [65][non-primary source needed] In 862, the Finnic and Slavic tribes in the area of Novgorod rebelled against the Varangians,[failed verification] driving them "back beyond the sea and, refusing them further tribute, set out to govern themselves. He assembled a large force of warriors from among neighboring Slavs and Pecheneg allies, and sent for reinforcements of Varangians from "beyond the sea. This compulsory baptism was followed by compulsory education Schools were thus founded not only in Kiev but also in provincial cities. The Chuds, the Slavs, the Krivichs and the Ves then said to the Rus', "Our land is great and rich, but there is no order in it. [155], The Mongol Empire invaded Kievan Rus' in the 13th century, destroying numerous cities, including Ryazan, Kolomna, Moscow, Vladimir and Kiev. Modern historians from Belarus, Russia and Ukraine alike consider Kievan Rus' the first period of their modern countries' histories. This applies to the word Rus' and to the concept of the Rus' Land. [76][116], The importance of this trade relationship led to military action when disputes arose. The Rus' used log rafts floated down the Dnieper River by Slavic tribes for the transport of goods, particularly slaves to Byzantium. [134], Other principalities included Siversk, and smaller territories like the lands of the Polianians (also called Rus'), Drevlian and Turiv-Pynsk (Tura-Pinsk) lands. Oleg, (died c. 912), semilegendary Viking (Varangian) leader who became prince of Kiev and is considered to be the founder of the Kievan Rus state. Last month, a Russian court convicted a father over social media posts critical of the war and sentenced him to two years in prison. More important was a class of tribute-paying peasants, who owed labour duty to the princes. [citation needed], From the 9th century, the Pecheneg nomads began an uneasy relationship with Kievan Rus'. Yaroslav also arranged marriages for his sister and three daughters to the kings of Poland, France, Hungary and Norway. [124][non-primary source needed] The Byzantines may have been motivated to enter the treaty out of concern of a prolonged alliance of the Rus', Pechenegs, and Bulgarians against them,[125] though the more favorable terms further suggest a shift in power. [121], Igor returned to Kiev keen for revenge. . Russian battle tank which was destroyed on the roadside during hostilities in Russian invasion of Ukraine, 2022. [143] He accepted a crown as a "Rex Rusiae"[citation needed] ("King of Rus") from the Roman papacy,[143] apparently doing so without breaking with Constantinople. More. According to the Daily Express, Prince Oleg was a real person whose life's deeds were recorded in the Rus' Chronicles, the East Slavic Chronicles, and the Primary Chronicle. At last a Byzantine army arrived from the Balkans to drive the Rus' back, and a naval contingent reportedly destroyed much of the Rus' fleet on its return voyage (possibly an exaggeration since the Rus' soon mounted another attack). Yaroslav the Wise, whose stepmother belonged to the Macedonian dynasty that ruled the Byzantine Empire from 867 to 1056, married the only legitimate daughter of the king who Christianized Sweden. 'Oleg the Prophet'; Ukrainian: ) or Oleg of Kiev, was a Varangian prince of the Rus' who was the first prince of Kiev, thereby laying the foundations of the Kievan Rus' state. [citation needed], Rus'-Byzantine relations became closer following the marriage of the porphyrogenita Anna to Vladimir the Great, and the subsequent Christianization of the Rus': Byzantine priests, architects and artists were invited to work on numerous cathedrals and churches around Rus', expanding Byzantine cultural influence even further. Source: Shutterstock/anmbph Ukrainian forces have reportedly captured more than 10,000 Russian military vehicles since the start of Putin's invasion of Ukraine, according to the open-source intelligence tracker Oryx. The city of Rostov, the oldest centre of the northeast, was supplanted first by Suzdal and then by the city of Vladimir, which become the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal. To the very north, the Novgorod and Pskov Feudal Republics were less autocratic than Vladimir-Suzdal-Moscow until they were absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Moscow. [55] Nationalist accounts on the other hand have suggested that the Rus' were present before the arrival of the Varangians,[56] noting that only a handful of Scandinavian words can be found in Russian and that Scandinavian names in the early chronicles were soon replaced by Slavic names. 2328 (Oxford Press, 1984). [76] A navy of 10,000 vessels, including Pecheneg allies, landed on the Bithynian coast and devastated the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus. 1: - / . Kievan society lacked the class institutions and autonomous towns that were typical of Western European feudalism. [citation needed], The Church of the Tithes was chosen as the first Cathedral Temple. Yaroslav, with the active support of the Novgorodians and the help of Viking mercenaries, defeated Svyatopolk and became the grand prince of Kiev in 1019. Leo the Deacon, The History of Leo the Deacon: Byzantine Military Expansion in the Tenth Century (Alice-Mary Talbot & Denis Sullivan, eds., 2005), sfn error: no target: CITEREFCrossSherbowitz-Wetzor1953 (. [136][17], In the early 10th century, Kievan Rus' mainly traded with other tribes in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. The Khazar khagan initially granted the Rus' safe passage in exchange for a share of the booty but attacked them on their return voyage, killing most of the raiders and seizing their haul. He was forced to flee to Scandinavia in 976 after his half-brother Yaropolk had murdered his other brother Oleg and taken control of Rus. "[76], Relations between the Rus' and Byzantines became more complex after Oleg took control over Kiev, reflecting commercial, cultural, and military concerns. Since. Both rulers continued the steady expansion of Kievan Rus' that had begun under Oleg. [47], While Varangians were Norse traders and Vikings,[48][49][50] some Russian and Ukrainian nationalist historians argue that the Rus' were themselves Slavs (see Anti-Normanism). Constantine Porphyrogenitus described the annual course of the princes of Kiev, collecting tribute from client tribes, assembling the product into a flotilla of hundreds of boats, conducting them down the Dnieper to the Black Sea, and sailing to the estuary of the Dniester, the Danube delta, and on to Constantinople. However, the Russians aren't the only baddies in the show, as the occupation of Norway is performed on behalf of the European Union. [40] In the northern region around Novgorod were the Ilmen Slavs[41] and neighboring Krivichi, who occupied territories surrounding the headwaters of the West Dvina, Dnieper and Volga rivers. In anticipation, Norway has assumed a larger role in the military developments in the Arctic, and not surprisingly, Russia has made known its displeasure with the close military cooperation between the U.S. and Norway and with the growing number of U.S. military assets in Norway. The Rus' burned towns, churches and monasteries, butchering the people and amassing booty. Nevertheless, while the Primary Chronicle reports the Pechenegs entering Rus' territory in 915 and then making peace, they were waging war with one another again in 920. By 885 he had subjugated the Poliane, Severiane, Vyatichi, and Radimichs, forbidding them to pay further tribute to the Khazars. At the begining of Oct. 1944 the 53,000 men of the 19th Mountain corps were still some 45 miles inside Russia along the Litsa River and the neck of the Rybachi peninsula. This is just one day's catch. [87][88] The Khazars dominated trade from the Volga-Don steppes to the eastern Crimea and the northern Caucasus during the 8th century during an era historians call the 'Pax Khazarica',[89] trading and frequently allying with the Byzantine Empire against Persians and Arabs. [citation needed], According to the Primary Chronicle, the territories of the East Slavs in the 9th century were divided between the Varangians and the Khazars. Casualties. [162] Literacy in Kiev, Novgorod and other large cities was high;[163][k] as birch bark documents attest, inhabitants exchanged love letters and prepared cheat sheets for schools. The Russians had to provide sustenance and lodgings for Mongol envoys, although tax exemptions were awarded to villages that had to bear the brunt of these costs. Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia, pp. Norway's reaction to the Russian invasion of Ukraine is coming through its membership in the NATO defense alliance and standing together with the European Union, even though Norway is not a member of the EU. Norway has condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The ploy dispelled the Rus' fleet, but their attacks continued into the hinterland as far as Nicomedia, with many atrocities reported as victims were crucified and set up for use as targets. [citation needed], In some cases, the veche either made agreements with their rulers or expelled them and invited others to take their place. "Russ, adj. Junior members of the dynasty usually began their official careers as rulers of a minor district, progressed to more lucrative principalities, and then competed for the coveted throne of Kiev. In the north, Novgorod served as a commercial link between the Baltic Sea and the Volga trade route to the lands of the Volga Bulgars, the Khazars, and across the Caspian Sea as far as Baghdad, providing access to markets and products from Central Asia and the Middle East. [129] Historically, it is more likely that he adopted Byzantine Christianity in order to strengthen his diplomatic relations with Constantinople. [97] In 894, the Magyars and Pechenegs were drawn into the wars between the Byzantines and the Bulgarian Empire. [citation needed], Lithuanian rulers also requested and received a metropolitan for Novagrudok shortly afterwards. 981: Erik the Red discovers Greenland. The Kremlin cast doubt on . [136], The unconventional power succession system fomented constant hatred and rivalry within the royal family. He was considered a powerful leader who controlled depending on the sources many or all of the Rus people during the end of the 9th century and the beginning of . Russia's invasion began with dozens of missile strikes on cities all over Ukraine before dawn on 24 February 2022. Some modern DNA testing also points to Viking origins, not only of some of the early Rus' princely family and/or their retinues, but also links to possible brethren from neighboring countries like Sviatopolk I of Kiev. Kevin Alan Brook, The Jews of Khazaria (2006). [44] Before the emergence of the Kievan state, these tribes had their own leaders and gods, and interaction between tribes was occasionally marked either by trading goods or fighting battles. . Russian forces rehearsed the invasion of Norway, Finland, Sweden and Denmark during a military exercise involving 33,000 troops, according to a new study of Baltic security. This not only indicates fear of another surprise attack, but an increased Kievan presence in the Black Sea. [98][99] The migration of the Magyars allowed Rus' access to the Black Sea,[100] and they soon launched excursions into Khazar territory along the sea coast, up the Don river, and into the lower Volga region. Oleg goes to visit the horse and stands over the carcass, gloating that he had outlived the threat, when a snake strikes him from among the bones, and he soon becomes ill and dies. [13], According to the Primary Chronicle, the first ruler to start uniting East Slavic lands into what would become Kievan Rus' was Prince Oleg (r.879912). [2], The state began to decline in the late 11th century, gradually disintegrating into various rival regional powers throughout the 12th century. Measured by this standard, Yaroslav's prestige must have been great indeed . In 1037, the cathedral was transferred to the newly built Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev. Novgorod enjoyed a wide degree of autonomy although being closely associated with the Kievan Rus. With Eyes on Russia, the U.S. Military Prepares for an Arctic Future. [170] Novgorod had about 10,000 to 15,000 inhabitants in 1000, and about double that number by 1200, while Chernigov had a larger land area than both Kiev and Novgorod at the time, and is therefore estimated have had even more inhabitants. They rejected Islam because, among other things, it prohibited the consumption of alcohol, and Judaism because the god of the Jews had permitted his chosen people to be deprived of their country. As with many of the characters on Vikings, Oleg is based on a real person who ruled a real group known as the 'Rus Vikings' in the 9th and 10th century C.E.
Mark Of Caesar,
Tap And Drill Wall Chart,
Enterprise Corporate Code,
Articles R